{PSOCIAL}

Over the past two decades, social psychology has witnessed a growing interest in the affective dynamics of collective life, particularly in how emotionally charged group experiences foster cohesion, identity, and shared meaning. Public demonstrations, religious and cultural rituals, and spontaneous acts of collective solidarity often elicit intense emotional states that transcend individual experience and catalyze a sense of connection to something greater than the self. These phenomena have revived and redefined interest in Collective Effervescence (CE) - a concept originally formulated by Émile Durkheim to describe the affective intensity and moral elevation generated in ritualized social gatherings. While Durkheim’s account was historically rooted in religious practices, contemporary research has extended this framework to encompass a broad range of secular, civic, and everyday group encounters, underscoring its theoretical and empirical relevance for understanding how collective emotional processes contribute to social integration and psychological well-being.

Objectives and Structure of the Article

The present article pursues four main objectives. First, it clarifies the conceptual distinction between Collective Effervescence (CE) and Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES), proposing an integrated framework that articulates emotional, cognitive, and social mechanisms of PES in Collective Gatherings (CGs). Second, it reviews empirical evidence regarding PES's antecedents, correlates, and outcomes, including social identification, collective efficacy, self-transcendent emotions, and well-being. Third, it incorporates findings from meta-analyses and cross-cultural studies to assess the consistency and generalizability of PES across different types of CGs. Finally, it advances a sequential explanatory model, highlighting PES as a psychological process linking co-presence and shared attention to identity transformation and collective meaning-making.

To meet these objectives, the article is structured in several sections. It begins by reviewing the conceptual foundations of CE and introducing PES as its psychological proxy. This is followed by a clarification of key definitions—particularly CGs and collective rituals—and the presentation of a sequential model describing how PES unfolds during collective events. Subsequent sections review measurement strategies for PES and empirical findings regarding its interaction with social identification, dispositional variables such as personality traits, and structural characteristics of gatherings. The article then explores PES's medium- and long-term consequences, including well-being, self-transcendence, collective empowerment, creativity, and civic engagement. The manuscript concludes with a critical reflection on PES's theoretical and societal relevance, its links to collective cognition, and directions for future research.

Collective Effervescence as Perceived Emotional Synchrony

Collective Effervescence has since been interpreted through a variety of lenses within social psychology. It has been described as a mediating process of interaction rituals (Collins, 2004); as positive affect arising from shared social identity during collective gatherings (CGs) ^[1] (e.g., Hopkins et al., 2016); and as emotional entrainment observed in crowds and demonstrations (von Scheve et al., 2014). CE has also been understood as a self-transcendent emotional experience triggered by communal sharing during collective rituals (Fiske et al., 2019) or as a profound emotional response linked to a sense of sacredness and engagement with shared ideals and values during group participation (Moscovici, 1988/1993). This latter conceptualization has been operationalized through indicators such as a subjective sense of connectedness (e.g., “I felt connected to others who were present at the event”) and perceived sacredness (e.g., “I felt as if there was something sacred about the event”; Gabriel et al., 2017; 2020).

Within this framework, Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES) has emerged as an empirical proxy for CE. PES refers to a psychological process that arises in collective gatherings when focused shared attention and behavioral synchrony facilitate the emergence of a collective emotional state. It is experienced as the subjective perception of entrainment, coordination, and synchronization of emotional responses among participants. PES is characterized by the emergence of intense emotional experiences—most often strong positive affect such as joy or elation—accompanied by feelings of connection to fellow participants, a sense of unity with the group, and engagement with values or moral standards that transcend the individual self (da Costa et al, 2025; Páez & da Costa, 2022; Pizarro et al., 2022; Rimé & Páez, 2023; Wlodarczyk et al., 2020).

Crucially, neither CE nor its proxy PES are inherently limited to high-arousal or disruptive emotional experiences such as catharsis, sexuality, or aggression—despite such depictions appearing in some of Durkheim’s early writings. In contrast, the dominant perspective in current research views CE as a broader emotional process that may unfold not only in revolutionary contexts but also in everyday group interactions, including educational or community settings (Rimé & Páez, 2023). Given that CE arises within CGs, it is essential to clarify these gatherings and distinguish related constructs, such as collective behaviors and collective rituals.

A collective gathering refers to a spatially and temporally bounded encounter involving two or more individuals who come together for a shared purpose (e.g., a union meeting, a religious service, or a public demonstration). Such gatherings provide the social context in which collective behaviors may emerge—understood as coordinated, convergent actions among participants (e.g., marching, chanting, clapping), often in response to shared stimuli or group norms (McPhail & Wohlstein, 1983). When these behaviors are infused with shared emotional meanings and symbolic content, they may give rise to Collective Effervescence (CE), as the synchronized emotional engagement of individuals enhances a sense of unity and social bonding.

Within this broader category, collective rituals represent a more structured and symbolically charged form of gathering. These events are typically characterized by five key features. First, they occur in a designated time and space, marked by clear temporal, spatial, and symbolic boundaries. Second, they are recurrent or follow culturally prescribed patterns. Third, they involve a sequenced set of formalized and repeated actions. Fourth, they are not primarily instrumental or goal-oriented; rather, their meaning is often opaque or metaphorical, functioning symbolically rather than pragmatically. As Durkheim emphasized, their significance lies in their ability to represent and reinforce the collective conscience. Fifth, collective rituals aim to regulate affect, cognition, and behavior—by, for instance, reducing anxiety, enhancing performance, or strengthening social ties and group identity.

These rituals often involve multiple participants and include social or symbolic barriers that distinguish levels of involvement or roles within the event. They typically elicit shared attention and behavioral synchrony, facilitating emotional alignment and the emergence of shared affective states—particularly self-transcendent emotions such as awe, inspiration, and moral elevation (Collins, 2014; de Rivera, 2023). As such, collective rituals serve a self-regulatory function, fulfilling emotional, motivational, and relational needs and contributing to broader processes of social integration and identity formation (Hobson et al., 2017).

In light of the theoretical framework outlined above, the present article pursues four main objectives. First, it clarifies the conceptual distinction between Collective Effervescence (CE) and Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES), proposing an integrated framework that articulates emotional, cognitive, and social mechanisms of PES in Collective Gatherings (CGs). Second, it reviews empirical evidence regarding PES's antecedents, correlates, and outcomes, including social identification, collective efficacy, self-transcendent emotions, and well-being. Third, it incorporates findings from meta-analyses and cross-cultural studies to assess the consistency and generalizability of PES across different types of CGs. Finally, it advances a sequential explanatory model, highlighting PES as a psychological process linking co-presence and shared attention to identity transformation and collective meaning-making. To meet these objectives, the article is structured in several sections. It begins by reviewing the conceptual foundations of CE and introducing PES as its psychological proxy. This is followed by a clarification of key definitions—particularly CGs and collective rituals—and the presentation of a sequential model describing how PES unfolds during collective events. Subsequent sections review measurement strategies for PES and empirical findings regarding its interaction with social identification, dispositional variables such as personality traits, and structural characteristics of gatherings. The article then explores PES's medium- and long-term consequences, including well-being, self-transcendence, collective empowerment, creativity, and civic engagement. The manuscript concludes with a critical reflection on PES's theoretical and societal relevance, its links to collective cognition, and directions for future research.

As illustrated in Table 1, various models highlight the multiple mechanisms that simultaneously shape psychological experience during collective gatherings (CGs). Within this framework, Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES) can be understood as a bottom-up socio-emotional process—that is, one that directly influences how individuals perceive, feel, and act during CGs. PES helps account for several psychosocial outcomes observed in these contexts.

From a measurement perspective, a six-item scale was developed to capture two central components of PES: the experience of intense shared emotionality and the feeling of unity among participants (Páez et al., 2015; Wlodarczyk et al., 2020). The scale includes three items assessing emotional intensity (e.g., “We felt a strong shared emotion”) and three items capturing perceived unity (e.g., “We all acted as one person”). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses have consistently supported a unidimensional structure, suggesting that PES operates as an integrated experience rather than as a set of distinct dimensions.

Primary and Complementary Perspectives on the Role of Perceived Emotional Synchrony in Collective Gatherings

Although PES is fundamentally affective in nature, it is not driven solely by emotional processes. Instead, it emerges from the interplay of behavioral (e.g., motor mimicry, synchronized action) and socio-cognitive mechanisms (e.g., shared attention, group salience). These complementary processes contribute to the amplification and alignment of emotional experiences within CGs.

Meta-analytic evidence further supports this multifactorial view. In a synthesis of 51 effect sizes, Pizarro et al. (2022) found that CE—as operationalized through PES in 28 of the included studies—was significantly associated with a range of variables reflecting construct-validity criteria (see Figure 1). These outcomes can be conceptually grouped into two categories: (a) affective processes, such as general emotional arousal and the prevalence of positive over negative emotionality; and (b) communal sharing, including social identification with fellow participants and perceived social support during the gathering.

Proximal outcomes and construct validity indicators of collective effervescence

Specifically, PES was positively correlated with general emotional activation (r = .44), calculated as the combined intensity of positive and negative affect. Its association with positive emotions was particularly strong (r = .55), while its link to negative emotions remained modest (r = .14), especially in the context of demonstrations. Regarding communal sharing, PES was also significantly related to participants’ social identification with the group (r = .47), and with perceived social support during the collective event (r = .33). These findings reinforce the conceptualization of PES as a psychologically rich, emotionally grounded, and relationally embedded process.

Research has also documented the medium-term effects of perceived emotional synchrony (PES) experienced during collective gatherings (CGs). Bouchat et al. (2020) investigated both short- and medium-term psychosocial outcomes following participation in a large-scale scouting event. Using a quasi-longitudinal design with assessments at baseline, within 24 hours post-event, and 10 weeks after, they found that participation was linked to lasting positive effects. Specifically, participants reported increased social integration and well-being, and those who experienced higher PES also reported stronger in-group identification, identity fusion, pride, openness to experience, self-esteem, positive affect, and adherence to core scouting values. These effects persisted up to ten weeks after the event.

Similarly, Zabala et al. (2023) reported that the social well-being benefits of participating in Korrika were sustained for at least six to seven weeks post-event through PES. In particular, identity fusion with the group increased over time among participants who were not previously fused (Zabala et al., 2024). These findings suggest that low-intensity PES from frequent, small-scale gatherings may influence outcomes for about one week. In contrast, more intense, large-scale gatherings such as mass mobilizations can yield effects lasting up to two months.

Perceived Emotional Synchrony (PES) represents a dynamic and emergent psychological process that captures individuals' affective, cognitive, and behavioral alignment immersed in collective gatherings (CGs). It reflects the subjective experience of emotional convergence, shared attention, and behavioral coordination arising from co-presence and structured or spontaneous group interactions (Páez et al., 2015; Wlodarczyk et al., 2020). As reviewed in this article, PES functions as a core mechanism through which collective effervescence (CE)—originally conceptualized by Durkheim (1912/1995) as a surge of collective energy—translates into psychosocial outcomes such as identity fusion, empowerment, and well-being (Pizarro et al., 2022; Bouchat et al., 2024). Importantly, PES does not operate in isolation but emerges at the intersection of social identification, symbolic participation, and affective entrainment. Its explanatory value lies in its ability to integrate a wide spectrum of phenomena often studied separately in psychology: the experience of shared emotions (Rimé & Páez, 2023), the development of group consciousness (Zumeta et al., 2020), the reinforcement of moral and prosocial values (Fiske et al., 2019), and the modulation of individual and collective behavior (Zlobina & Dávila, 2022). By doing so, PES provides a unifying framework to understand how emotionally charged collective experiences contribute to social cohesion, cognitive openness, and individual transformation. This model foregrounds PES as both a relational process—anchored in the intersubjective recognition of emotional alignment—and a developmental trajectory, through which individuals navigate from personal emotion to collective meaning-making and shared intentionality.

This article contributes to the literature by systematizing and expanding the current understanding of PES as a multidimensional construct that transcends mere emotional contagion or behavioral mimicry. While prior research has addressed individual correlates of collective behavior or specific emotional experiences in group settings (Collins, 2004; Drury & Reicher, 2009), the present synthesis demonstrates that PES constitutes a mediating psychological mechanism that bridges individual-level emotional and cognitive processes with broader social dynamics such as identity fusion (Pizarro et al., 2022), inclusive identification (de Rivera, 2023), and collective efficacy (Zabala et al., 2023). The review brings together findings from diverse empirical contexts—including religious rituals, social movements, cultural festivals, and pandemic-era public rituals—offering robust cross-cultural validation of the PES model (Cusi et al., 2022; Rincón-Unigarro et al., 2024; Figueroa, 2024). Moreover, it presents meta-analytic evidence confirming the associations between PES and self-transcendent emotions (e.g., awe, kama muta), well-being, prosocial behavior, and even quasi-behavioral indicators of non-parochial altruism (Pizarro et al., 2022). In doing so, the article not only consolidates fragmented empirical results but also advances a sequential explanatory model of collective gatherings, from co-presence to self-transcendence, highlighting PES as a critical link in the psychological transformation of the self through collective experience (Rimé & Páez, 2023; da Costa et al., 2023).

Beyond its theoretical significance, the study of PES addresses urgent societal needs in an era marked by polarization, collective stress, and erosion of social trust. The capacity of emotionally synchronized gatherings to generate cohesion, solidarity, and a renewed sense of belonging makes PES highly relevant to understanding how communities confront large-scale challenges—from public health crises to social injustice and climate emergencies. As Basabe (2021) highlights, inclusive and prosocial rituals offer communities experiential resources to combat social exclusion and cultivate meaning and shared purpose. Similarly, Fredrickson’s (2016) concept of positivity resonance—defined as shared positive affect, mutual care, and biological synchrony—has been empirically associated with group cohesion and collective behavioral engagement (West et al., 2021). These developments support the view that PES can foster not only group bonding but also prosocial mobilization. In this sense, PES contributes to the construction of affective infrastructures that sustain democratic participation, civic commitment, and resilience in contexts of uncertainty. Its capacity to elicit emotions that are not only intense but self-transcendent (e.g., awe, moral inspiration, kama muta) further positions PES as a psychological mechanism capable of expanding moral concern beyond group boundaries and reinforcing inclusive social identities (Fiske et al., 2019; Pizarro et al., 2022). Therefore, understanding how PES functions within collective encounters is not merely a matter of academic interest, but a key to deciphering how emotional energy can be harnessed toward cooperation, justice, and collective well-being.

The findings reviewed here also open avenues for future research that extend beyond the affective domain. Although considerable evidence now supports the role of PES in shaping identity, prosociality, and collective well-being, important questions remain regarding its longitudinal dynamics, boundary conditions, and interactions with sociopolitical variables. For example, under what circumstances does PES foster inclusive identifications versus parochial bonds? What are the temporal thresholds and saturation points beyond which emotional synchrony consolidates durable collective identities? Furthermore, recent developments in the study of collective cognition suggest that PES may play a foundational role in constructing what Shteynberg et al. (2023) have called the collective theory of mind: the mental representation of a shared psychological state across individuals. This process involves mutual awareness, convergent appraisals, and the use of “we” as a subject of thought and action. From this perspective, PES is not merely an emotional outcome of gatherings but a generative mechanism of entitativity—the perception of a group as a coherent social agent. It contributes to the emergence of collective intentionality, moral motivation, and shared narratives that regulate social life. In bringing together diverse empirical traditions and proposing a unified, process-based model of perceived emotional synchrony, this article contributes to rethinking how psychology understands collective experience. PES is not merely a byproduct of shared moments—it is a central mechanism through which collectives are felt, enacted, and sustained.