{PSOCIAL}

Introduction

Nowadays, a sizable segment of the populace uses social networking sites on a regular basis. In order to share information and build relationships, Petrosyan (2024) estimates that 5.4 billion of the 8.1 billion people on the planet (as reported by the United Nations Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2024) have access to the Internet and a variety of social media platforms, including Facebook, Whatsapp, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn. On the other hand, a large portion of undergraduate social media users participate in online trolling on social media platforms.

Some people classify trolling as online harassment or abuse. Trolling is defined as an intentionally rude, deceptive, and purposeful attitude intended to provoke responses from other users of the internet (Golf-Papez & Veer, 2022). According to Shaw (2013), trolling is the deliberate dissemination of disturbing or enigmatic messages on the internet in an effort to incite strong reactions from a group of people. According to Bratu (2017), trolling is when someone or a group posts offensive remarks online in addition to more organised, active hate activities carried out by groups of individuals. It's a practice in which a discussion forum member intentionally tries to incite the wrath of other members, breaking up conversations and possibly deflecting the conversation from the original subject (Hopkinson, 2013). A social media troll is someone who purposefully stirs up controversy in an effort to draw attention from other users. In these situations, the troll's need for attention is so strong that they frequently utilise foul language and abuse in their remarks. These frequently uttered remarks frequently have little to do with the subject at hand (Hardaker, 2010).

According to Shringarpure and Dharam (2019), various factors contribute to the increasing prevalence of trolling such as: E.g., engaging in trolling for fun, out of boredom, or as a form of retaliation, asserting one's identity, lack of understanding of legal consequences, false sense of security, impatience, and the desire for easy popularity. Trolls take sadistic pleasure in incriminating those close to them because their actions have no consequences (Phillips, 2015). Trolls have a deep understanding of the impact their actions have on others and they know exactly what issues elicit the most reaction from the people they have targeted (Phillips, 2015).

The phenomenon of trolling on social media in Nigeria and Africa has become increasingly pervasive and has significant social impacts. In Nigeria, public figures and celebrities often experience targeted trolling, with online harassment that can be compared to digital aggression. For instance, Nigerian musician 2Baba (Innocent Idibia) likened the constant barrage of negative and often unfounded comments he receives online to “terrorism,” indicating the emotional toll it can take on individuals subjected to it regularly (Pulse Nigeria, 2023)​. Sports figures are also frequently targeted. Nigerian footballer Alex Iwobi, following a loss in the African Cup of Nations, faced such a degree of online abuse that he felt compelled to delete posts on his social media. His teammate, Ahmed Musa, called out this behavior, advocating for fair and constructive support rather than singling out players for a team loss. This incident illustrates how social media trolling can extend beyond criticism to become harmful personal attacks (Africanews, 2024)​.

Nigeria's Cybercrime Act of 2015 addresses cyber harassment and threats, which may overlap with trolling. However, there are criticisms regarding its effectiveness and the potential misuse of this legislation, particularly around freedom of expression. Critics argue that the law, while intended to curb online abuse, may unintentionally suppress political dissent by categorizing strong opposition as cyber harassment (TechCabal, 2019)​

Trolling is widespread among students in universities due to consistent use of various social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, etc. (Andjelic, 2019; Elias & Magdalena, 2019). In Nigeria, Nwachukwu and Onyenankeya (2017) found that a significant proportion of college students 98% used their communication devices primarily for social activities rather than academic purposes. Mustapha, Muhammed, and Olowoniyi (2020) conducted a study in Nigeria and found that there is a significant prevalence of online harassment among freshmen. Specifically, it was found that the trolling rate among Nigerian students is 44.0%. Denwigwe et al (2019), noted that online trolling is a common practice among students, and that anybody can be a victim.

Gender differences were observed in both the perpetration of internet trolling, the experience of being a victim of trolling, and the amount of time spent online. There was a strong positive correlation between time spent on social media and the number of people targeted by trolls. According to Case and King (2018), men reported experiencing a greater number of personal trolls than women. Additionally, the amount of time they spent on social media was positively correlated with the frequency with which they witnessed others being trolled. According to Guo's (2016) findings, women were more likely to be victims of trolling. However, in this study, men reported getting more trolls, contradicting Guo's conclusions. According to Novo, Pereira, and Matos (2014), more boys were willing to harass others compared to girls. March et al. (2022) and Buckels et al. (2014) found that women exhibit higher levels of antisocial online behavior compared to men, such as cyberstalking in intimate relationships. On the other hand, men are more likely to engage in trolling. In their study, Baughman et al. (2014) found that male students had a higher propensity to engage in trolling behavior, particularly in online gaming communities, compared to their female peers. Consistent with previous research, men have been found to be more likely to engage in antisocial behavior online compared to women (Whitty & Carr, 2006). Several studies of cyber victimization among college students have shown that female students are more likely to experience online trolling or cyberbullying in the form of threats, blackmail, spreading derogatory stories about them, sharing personal information about them, and making comments are exposed to their appearance (such as weight, skin color, and choice of clothing) and make sexual comments (Raselekoane et al., 2019; O\'Connor et al., 2018). Wong et al. (2018) took a contrasting viewpoint and claimed that male students were at higher risk of becoming victims in cyberspace compared to female students.

Buckels et al. (2014) found that younger individuals had a higher propensity to engage in trolling behavior compared to older individuals. They discovered a clear negative relationship between age and the satisfaction associated with trolling. This means that as people get older, they find less pleasure in intentionally provoking or upsetting others online. Similarly, Chabrol et al. (2014) conducted a study to determine the prevalence of cyberbullying and cybervictimization among adolescents and young adults. Researchers found that younger individuals, particularly those in middle and high school, showed a higher tendency to engage in cyberbullying activities such as trolling compared to older individuals enrolled in college or university. According to a study by Soares, Gruzd, Jacobson, and Hodson (2023), young people engage in antisocial online behavior for the purpose of amusement and social validation. Younger internet users have a higher prevalence of online harassment and trolling compared to older users. According to Pew Research Center’ (2017) study, people between the ages of 18 and 29 are the most vulnerable to online harassment.

Several studies suggest that people who devote a lot of time to online forums, social media platforms, or gaming communities may encounter trolling behavior that could impact their engagement. Wright and Li (2013) point out that spending a lot of time in online environments can lead to desensitization and a decline in empathy. In their study, Marrington et al. (2023) found that those who spent more time online were more likely to be involved in or be a victim of trolling incidents two or three times in the past year. Studies by Fichman and Sanfilippo (2016) and Buckels et al. (2014) have shown a relationship between higher internet usage and the frequency of trolling incidents. Prolonged exposure to online environments tends to increase the likelihood of encountering cases of trolling, whether as a recipient or a viewer. Still, time spent online in isolation may not be a sufficient indicator of trolling behavior. The reference is from Cheng et al. (2017).

Trolls have the ability to cause damage in a variety of ways. Trolls have the ability to disrupt the flow of conversation in a newsgroup, spread misleading information, and undermine trust within the group. In a community that has developed a heightened awareness of trolling (when fraudulent behavior is common), many truly innocuous questions may be immediately dismissed as trolling (Ngbar, 2019). This can be off-putting to the new user, who will immediately be bombarded with hostile accusations upon their first post. Postmes, Spears, and Lea (2018) noted that even if the claim is unfounded, being labeled a troll can have a significant detrimental impact on a person's reputation online. Trolling has a significant impact on an individual's physical and mental well-being. It can lead to difficulty sleeping, feelings of sadness, low self-esteem, self-harm and suicidal thoughts. In extreme circumstances, suicide can even occur (Buckels, Trapnell, & Paulhus, 2014; Hardaker, 2010). Many people experience a loss of self-confidence due to online harassment, leading to negative self-perceptions, a small social circle, and a penchant for loneliness. This can lead to harmful actions, including self-inflicted harm (Gani, 2016; Stein, 2016).

The incidence of trolling among internet users, especially undergraduates, has become increasingly worrisome as it has rendered many active online groups inactive, where many members decided to keep mute in any conversation and the targeted victims suffered from psychosocial problems. There are limited studies on trolling in Nigeria, the available one was on online harassment (Mustapha et al, 2020), and however, issues surrounding internet trolling are majorly foreign-based. This was the gap filled by this study. The study investigated the prevalence and consequences of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara State. The study hypothesized the difference in the prevalence and consequences of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara state across gender, age and time spent on social media.

Method

Population and sample

The descriptive survey method was used to collect relevant data on undergraduates’ views regarding the prevalence and consequences of internet trolling. The study population comprised 104,632 undergraduates enrolled across 11 universities in Kwara State, Nigeria, including University of Ilorin, Kwara State University, Al-Hikmah University, Summit University, Ojaja University, Thomas Adewumi University, Ahman Pategi University, University of Offa, Landmark University, Muhammad Kamalud-deen University, and the National Open University. However, the sample for this study was limited to students from University of Ilorin, Kwara State University, and Al-Hikmah University, representing federal, state, and private universities, respectively, in Kwara State with the largest undergraduate populations.

Using a simple random sampling technique, the researchers selected a sample of 420 undergraduates from these three universities (that is 140 from each of University of Ilorin; Kwara State University; and Al-Hikmah University). This sample is representative of undergraduates in Kwara State and was chosen to provide insights into undergraduates’ views within this state, which has a mid-level population density in Nigeria. It should be noted that the findings of this study are specific to Kwara State and cannot be generalized to the entire Nigerian undergraduate population without further research, as Kwara State represents a unique demographic profile within the broader national context. This scope helps to contextualize the conclusions drawn from the study while avoiding overgeneralization.

Participants

The study involved the participation of 420 undergraduates from federal, state and private universities. The male respondents (63.6%) participated in this study more often than female respondents (N=153, 36.4%). Of the 420 participants, 228 (54.3%) were between 18 and 25 years old, 177 (42.1) were between the ages of 26-35 while 15 (3.6%) were 36 years of age and above. Based on time spent online, 70 (16.7%) respondents were online less than 1 hour per day, 112 (26.7%) were online between 1 and 2 hours per day, and 122 (29.0%) were between 3 and 4 hours online while 116 (27.6%) spent 5 hours or more online.

Instruments

The instrument used for this research was a researcher-developed questionnaire called the Prevalence and Consequences of Trolling Questionnaire (PITQ). The scale was divided into three sections. The section contained demographic data and social media platforms commonly used by respondents, while Sections B and C each contained 20 items on the prevalence and consequences of internet trolling (See appendix), using four-point Likert formats with a scale of 4 to 1 point were structured. The content validity of the instrument was achieved by giving the questionnaire to five (5) lecturers of the Department of Counsellor Education, University of Ilorin for review. The instrument was subjected to test-retest reliability in which the reliability coefficient was 0.85 and 0.82 for sections B and C respectively.

Data analysis procedure

he researchers utilized both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Descriptive percentage statistics were applied to sections A and B. Section A, which contained demographic variables of gender, age and time spent online, while section B of the instrument contained 20-items on prevalence of trolling among undergraduates (See appendix) was scored as follows. The respondents who scored between 21–40 points on questionnaire rating were categorized as low level of trolling perpetration; the respondents with scored 41–60 were considered to have moderate level of trolling perpetration," while the respondents with the score between 61–80 was considered as having as high level of trolling perpetration. The prevalence of trolling was then determined by the percentage of respondents that engaged at varying level of trolling perpetration. This classification was determined based on the scoring dimensions outlined in the instrument because based on previous findings, prevalence was measured according to different metrics (number of perpetrators, number of victims and level of activity) (Mustapha et al., 2020; March and Marington, 2019; Hong & Cheng, 2018).

To address the research question regarding the consequences of internet trolling (that is, section B of the instrument), the mean and ranking of responses were used. Items with a mean score of 2.50 or above were regarded as significant consequences, while those below 2.50 were not considered significant. For inferential analysis, independent t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed to test the null hypotheses at a 0.05 significance level.

Result

Table 1 showed that 157 (36.7%) of the respondents had a high prevalence of Internet trolling, 217 (51.7%) of the respondents had a moderate prevalence of Internet trolling; while 49 (11.7%) had a low prevalence of internet trolling. Considering this result, it is cleared that internet trolling perpetration is highly prevalent if all the sampled respondents indicated engagement at varying level. Specifically, 51.7% of respondents engaged in moderate levels of internet trolling.

Table 2 revealed the consequences of internet trolling among the respondents. All the 20 items on consequences of internet trolling have the mean score that is higher than 2.50 mean cut-off point. However, items 1, 3, 5, 19 and 7 have the highest mean scores. This indicates that among others respondents attested that internet trolling have the following consequences losing self-confidence; damage feelings of trust in group members; encourage meaningless discourse over important issues; worry or anxiety among the public over unreal or frivolous made-up stories and ending up in prison if found guilty of offences being prosecuted for.

Table 3 showed the differences in the prevalence of internet trolling among the respondents across gender, age and time spent online. It was revealed there were no significant differences in the prevalence of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara state based on gender (t=1.84, p>0.05) and time spent online (F=1.09, p>0.05) but significant difference was found based on age (F=3.48, p<0.05). In order to determine the specific age range that contributed to the significant difference, Scheffe post-hoc indicates where significant difference lies as showed in Table 4.

Table 4 shows that respondents who were between 26-35 years of age have the mean score of 56.51 (in subset 1), those who were between 15 -25 years of age have the mean score 59.14 (in subset 2) while respondents who were 36 years of age and above have the highest mean score of 61.00 (in subset 3) and thus contributed to the significant difference.

Table 5 indicated the differences in the consequences of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara State across gender, age and time spent online. It was revealed there were no significant differences in the consequences of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara state based on gender (t=0.804, p>0.05) and age (F=0.004, p>0.05) but significant difference was found based on time spent online (F=5.99, p<0.05). Scheffe post-hoc indicates where significant difference lies based on time spent online as showed in Table 6.

Table 6 showed that respondents who spent between 3-4 hours, 5 hours and above and those who spent between 1-2 hours online per day, have the mean scores of 64.67, 64.97 and 65.97 (in subset 1), while respondents who spent less than 1 hour online have the highest mean scores of 67.44 (in subset 2) and thus contributed to the significant difference.

Discussion

The finding revealed that 29.0% (N=122) of the participants spent between 3-4 hours online, 27.6% (N=116) spent 5 hours online and above and 26.7% (N=112) spent between 1-2 hours online per day. This implies that undergraduates in Kwara state spent at least 1 hour online. This could be a result of the fact that social media platforms have become means of communication among them as well as surfing the internet to do academic work. The finding of the study relates to the study of Aduloju (2020) who found that most undergraduate students devoted more time to social networking sites for socialisation. Similarly, Orji et al (2022) found that majority of students spend an average of 5 hours and less on social media per day. This could be due to an inflexible schedule that does not leave students free time for social activities.

The study showed that more than half of the participants engaged in moderate levels of internet trolling. The justification for this finding could be attributed to the fact that while on social media, it is generally common to find someone posting contentious or off-topic statements to evoke an emotional response from others. While trolling is not just prominent among a certain age group, it is particularly common among college freshmen. The results of this study are consistent with those of Marrington et al. agree. (2023), who found that trolling activities were quite common among adolescents in Australia. Both Stein (2016) and Moscaritolo (2017) came to a similar conclusion. The anonymity and lack of accountability afforded by the Internet may be a factor in the moderate prevalence of trolling among university students. Perhaps many students feel safer speaking out online than they would in person because they believe they will not be held accountable. The competitive nature of higher education is another potential factor; because they are often under great pressure to do well in school, students may troll to gain an advantage over their peers in the resulting toxic online environment.

This indicates that among others respondents attested that losing self-confidence; damaging feelings of trust in group members; encouraging meaningless discourse over important issues and others were some of the consequences of internet trolling. This finding revealed that the presence of trolls in online conversations can turn the platform into an unfriendly setting which may discourage new members from joining and can create a new mode of operation for others to troll like them in the group. The result of this study confirms the studies of Jateline (2006); Eken (2011) and Huffington (2013); whose results showed that victims of trolling are vulnerable to loss of trust. The result of this study is consistent with the findings of Ortega, Troyano, Cruz, Vallejo, and Enriquez (2012); and Pew Research Center (2017); This showed that distrust is linked to trolling among respondents. Some researchers (Higgin, 2013; Phillips, 2015) also reported that trolling has the ability to generate valid social criticism and meaningful discourse on important issues.

The finding of the study revealed that there were no significant differences in the prevalence of internet trolling among undergraduates in Kwara state based on gender and time spent online but significant difference was found based on age. In order to determine the specific age range that contributed to the significant difference, Scheffe post-hoc revealed that respondents who were 36 years of age and above contributed to the significant difference. Based on gender, this means that the rate at which male and female undergraduates were perpetrating trolling were not different. This result confirms the results of March et al. (2017); Vermeeren (2017), who pointed out that gender has no relative influence on respondents' attitudes toward trolling behavior. The results of this study and previous research may be consistent; the use of mobile phones and social media is widespread among today's male and female young generations. Therefore, it is likely that any of them will commit the act of trolling. The study by Thacker and Griffiths (2012); contradicts the result of this study as they found that there were differences between male and female adolescents in the level of understanding and prevalence of trolling among students. They reported that women were more involved in the crime than their female counterparts. This could be due to the fact that women are known to be more social and outspoken than men; therefore, the discrepancy exists between this previous research and the current results of this study. The result of this study suggests that trolling is a deviant act committed by both male and female individuals.

Based on time spent online, this implies that differences did not exist in the rate at which students were involved in internet trolling irrespective of the time they spent online. The finding is not consistent with the studies by Case and King (2018); and Case, King, and Case (2019), who reported that the frequency of social media use influenced the extent to which students engaged in trolling behavior. The reason could be that more and more internet trolling perpetrators are committing the act at every possible opportunity, whenever they are online.

In the results, a significant difference was found based on age and it was found that respondents who were 36 years old contributed to the significant difference. This means that students' involvement in internet trolling varied across age groups. This finding is evident in the study by Thacker and Griffiths (2012), whose results suggest that age has a relative influence on students' opinions about the prevalence of trolling. On the other hand, this finding refutes the studies of Vermeeren (2017); Sest and March (2017), who showed that age has no influence on adolescents' perceptions of trolling behaviour. Differences in the research methods used may have led to the observed discrepancy between this study and the previous result. This finding follows that trolling occurs among students of all ages.

The result of the research showed that there was no significant difference in the consequences of internet trolling among students in Kwara State based on gender and age, however, a significant difference was found based on time spent online. Based on gender, the result revealed that both male and female students suffered the same consequences from internet trolling. The result supports the study by Todd and Melancon (2019), who found that despite being different genders, there were differences in how respondents expressed their susceptibility to sexual harassment and troll behavior. The reason could be that both male and female students spend the same amount of time online.

No significant difference was found across age groups, suggesting that respondents across the age group faced similar consequences due to internet trolling. The result supports the study by Kennedy and Taylor (2010), who reported psychological distress, social withdrawal or reduced self-esteem due to experiences with internet trolling in victims of different ages. Similarly, Case and King (2018) found that participants reported similar levels of stress, anxiety, and negative emotional consequences when exposed to online trolling behavior regardless of age. The reason for this finding may be that students of different age groups may use similar coping mechanisms when dealing with online trolling, such as blocking the troll, ignoring the behavior, or seeking support from peers. Consequently, the mental health consequences of trolling may not vary significantly by age.

A significant difference in the consequences of internet trolling among students in Kwara State based on time spent online. Scheffe showed post-hoc that respondents who spent less than an hour online contributed more to the significant difference. The result of this study supports the results reported by Yirci, Karakose, and Malkoc (2021); Ibrahim, Meerangani, Mukhtar, Johar, Badhrulhisham and Abdul Hamid (2022); It was found that hours spent on social media influenced the frequency of students' trolling behavior. The similarity of this finding to previous research was that extensive exposure to social media could improve students' understanding of trolling behavior as they might encounter various comments or posts on controversial topics on social media. However, this finding refuted the result of the study by Adebayo and Ninggal (2021); No significant difference was found in students' views on the consequences of trolling based on the hours they spent on social media. Respondents' different emotional responses to problems may have led to the inequality found in this study. This is because the way a person responds to problems varies depending on the time spent at the site of abuse.

The counselling implications of the study highlight the need for early intervention to address social media addiction and online abuse among undergraduate students. Screening for excessive use, educating students on the risks of trolling, and teaching emotional regulation are essential strategies. These approaches align with social psychology principles, focusing on self-identity, social learning, behaviour regulation, and emotional intelligence to help students manage their online behaviours and mental health effectively.

The study found that internet use is common, with participants spending at least an hour online and over half engaging in moderate trolling, leading to impacts like reduced self-confidence, trust issues, and superficial discussions. While trolling rates didn’t vary by gender or time online, younger users trolled more, and impacts differed by time spent online. These findings underscore the need for interventions to reduce trolling and promote responsible online behaviour among students in Kwara State.

In terms of future perspectives, and considering the limitations of this study, self-report instrument was employed to gather data for the study. Although, this did not disturb the prevalence of trolling among the respondents. Regarding the consequences, the item with greater mean score depicted those of perpetrators therefore, items on consequences for victims could be have also attracted high score if the victims have been equally represented. Qualitative research could further explore the consequences for victims. The study has also attained it focus and it is also the first in Nigeria that explored the prevalence and consequences of trolling among university undergraduates. This would serve as source of information for further research as well as give the insight into the need to intervene on the incidence of trolling among students in Nigeria.

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